a long-term mental disorder of a type involving a breakdown in the relation between thought, emotion, and behaviour, leading to faulty perception, inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and personal relationships into fantasy and delusion, and a sense of mental fragmentation. Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a challenging disorder that makes it difficult to distinguish between what is real and unreal, think clearly, manage emotions, relate to others, and function normally. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t hope. Schizophrenia can be successfully managed. The first step is to identify the signs and symptoms. The second step is to seek help without delay. With the right treatment and support, a person with schizophrenia can lead a happy, fulfilling life.
Schizophrenia is a brain disorder that affects the way a person behaves, thinks, and sees the world. People with schizophrenia often have an altered perception of reality. They may see or hear things that don’t exist, speak in strange or confusing ways, believe that others are trying to harm them, or feel like they’re being constantly watched. This can make it difficult to negotiate the activities of daily life, and people with schizophrenia may withdraw from the outside world or act out in confusion and fear.
Although schizophrenia is a chronic disorder, there is help available. With support, medication, and therapy, many people with schizophrenia are able to function independently and live fulfilling lives.Early warning signs of schizophrenia
In some people, schizophrenia appears suddenly and without warning. But for most, it comes on slowly, with subtle warning signs and a gradual decline in functioning long before the first severe episode. Many friends and family members of people with schizophrenia report knowing early on that something was wrong with their loved one, they just didn’t know what.
In this early phase, people with schizophrenia often seem eccentric, unmotivated, emotionless, and reclusive. They isolate themselves, start neglecting their appearance, say peculiar things, and show a general indifference to life. They may abandon hobbies and activities, and their performance at work or school deteriorates.
The most common early warning signs of schizophrenia include:
While these warning signs can result from a number of problems—not just schizophrenia—they are cause for concern. When out-of-the-ordinary behavior is causing problems in your life or the life of a loved one, seek medical advice. If schizophrenia or another mental problem is the cause, treatment will help.
Signs and symptoms of schizophrenia
There are five types of symptoms characteristic of schizophrenia: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, and the so-called “negative” symptoms. However, the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia vary dramatically from person to person, both in pattern and severity. Not every person with schizophrenia will have all symptoms, and the symptoms of schizophrenia may also change over time.
Delusions
A delusion is a firmly-held idea that a person has despite clear and obvious evidence that it isn’t true. Delusions are extremely common in schizophrenia, occurring in more than 90% of those who have the disorder. Often, these delusions involve illogical or bizarre ideas or fantasies. Common schizophrenic delusions include:
Hallucinations
Hallucinations are sounds or other sensations experienced as real when they exist only in the person’s mind. While hallucinations can involve any of the five senses, auditory hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices or some other sound) are most common in schizophrenia. Visual hallucinations are also relatively common. Research suggests that auditory hallucinations occur when people misinterpret their own inner self-talk as coming from an outside source.
Schizophrenic hallucinations are usually meaningful to the person experiencing them. Many times, the voices are those of someone they know. Most commonly, the voices are critical, vulgar, or abusive. Hallucinations also tend to be worse when the person is alone.
Disorganized speech
Fragmented thinking is characteristic of schizophrenia. Externally, it can be observed in the way a person speaks. People with schizophrenia tend to have trouble concentrating and maintaining a train of thought. They may respond to queries with an unrelated answer, start sentences with one topic and end somewhere completely different, speak incoherently, or say illogical things.
Common signs of disorganized speech in schizophrenia include:
Disorganized behavior
Schizophrenia disrupts goal-directed activity, causing impairments in a person’s ability to take care of him or herself, work, and interact with others. Disorganized behavior appears as:
Negative symptoms (absence of normal behaviors)
The so-called “negative” symptoms of schizophrenia refer to the absence of normal behaviors found in healthy individuals. Common negative symptoms of schizophrenia include:
Causes of schizophrenia
The causes of schizophrenia are not fully known. However, it appears that schizophrenia usually results from a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors.
Genetic causes of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia has a strong hereditary component. Individuals with a first-degree relative (parent or sibling) who has schizophrenia have a 10 percent chance of developing the disorder, as opposed to the one percent chance of the general population.
But schizophrenia is only influenced by genetics, not determined by it. While schizophrenia runs in families, about 60% of schizophrenics have no family members with the disorder. Furthermore, individuals who are genetically predisposed to schizophrenia don’t always develop the disease, which shows that biology is not destiny.
Environmental causes of schizophrenia
Twin and adoption studies suggest that inherited genes make a person vulnerable to schizophrenia and then environmental factors act on this vulnerability to trigger the disorder.
As for the environmental factors involved, more and more research is pointing to stress, either during pregnancy or at a later stage of development. High levels of stress are believed to trigger schizophrenia by increasing the body’s production of the hormone cortisol.
Research points to several stress-inducing environmental factors that may be involved in schizophrenia, including:
Abnormal brain structure
In addition to abnormal brain chemistry, abnormalities in brain structure may also play a role in schizophrenia. Enlarged brain ventricles are seen in some schizophrenics, indicating a deficit in the volume of brain tissue. There is also evidence of abnormally low activity in the frontal lobe, the area of the brain responsible for planning, reasoning, and decision-making.
Some studies also suggest that abnormalities in the temporal lobes, hippocampus, and amygdala are connected to schizophrenia’s positive symptoms. But despite the evidence of brain abnormalities, it is highly unlikely that schizophrenia is the result of any one problem in any one region of the brain.
Effects of schizophrenia
When the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia are ignored or improperly treated, the effects can be devastating, both to the individual with the disorder and those around him or her. Some of the possible effects of schizophrenia are:
Diagnosing schizophrenia
A diagnosis of schizophrenia is made based on a full psychiatric evaluation, medical history, physical exam, and lab tests.
Criteria to diagnose schizophrenia
Conditions that can look like schizophrenia
The medical and psychological conditions the doctor must rule out before diagnosing schizophrenia include:
Our brain consists of billions of nerve cells. Each nerve cell has branches that give out and receive messages from other nerve cells.
The ending of these nerve cells release neurotransmitters – types of chemicals. These neurotransmitters carry messages from the endings of one nerve cell to the nerve cell body of another. In the brain of a person who has schizophrenia, this messaging system does not work properly.
There is, to date, no physical or laboratory test that can absolutely diagnose schizophrenia. The doctor, a psychiatrist, will make a diagnosis based on the patient’s clinical symptoms. However, physical testing can rule out some other disorders and conditions which sometimes have similar symptoms, such as seizure disorders, thyroid dysfunction, braintumor, drug use, and metabolic disorders.
Symptoms and signs of schizophrenia will vary, depending on the individual. The symptoms are classified into four categories:
Below is a list of the major symptoms:
Other symptoms schizophrenia patients may experience include:
People with schizophrenia may have a high rate of irritable bowel syndrome but they often do not mention it unless specifically asked.[25]
Schizophrenia is often described in terms of positive and negative (or deficit) symptoms.[26] Positive symptoms are those that most individuals do not normally experience but are present in people with schizophrenia. They can include delusions, disordered thoughts and speech, and tactile, auditory, visual, olfactory andgustatory hallucinations, typically regarded as manifestations of psychosis.[27] Hallucinations are also typically related to the content of the delusional theme.[28]Positive symptoms generally respond well to medication.[28]
Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of other thought processes, and are less responsive to medication.[17] They commonly include flat expressions or little emotion, poverty of speech, inability to experience pleasure, lack of desire to form relationships, and lack of motivation. Negative symptoms appear to contribute more to poor quality of life, functional ability, and the burden on others than do positive symptoms.[29] People with greater negative symptoms often have a history of poor adjustment before the onset of illness, and response to medication is often limited.[17][30]
Deficits in cognitive abilities are widely recognized as a core feature of schizophrenia.[31][32][33] The extent of the cognitive deficits an individual experiences is a predictor of how functional an individual will be, the quality of occupational performance, and how successful the individual will be in maintaining treatment.[34] The presence and degree of cognitive dysfunction in individuals with schizophrenia has been reported to be a better indicator of functionality than the presentation of positive or negative symptoms.[31] The deficits impacting the cognitive function are found in a large number of areas: working memory, long-term memory,[35][36]verbal declarative memory,[37] semantic processing,[38] episodic memory,[34] attention, learning (particularly verbal learning).[35] Deficits in verbal memory are the most pronounced in individuals with schizophrenia, and are not accounted for by deficit in attention. Verbal memory impairment has been linked to a decreased ability in individuals with schizophrenia to semantically encode (process information relating to meaning), which is cited as a cause for another known deficit in long-term memory.[35] When given a list of words, healthy individuals remember positive words more frequently (known as the Pollyanna principle ); however, individuals with schizophrenia tend to remember all words equally regardless of their connotations, suggesting that the experience of anhedonia impairs the semantic encoding of the words.[35] These deficits have been found in individuals before the onset of the illness to some extent.[31][33][39] First-degree family members of individuals with schizophrenia and other high-risk individuals also show a degree of deficit in cognitive abilities, and specifically in working memory.[39] A review of the literature on cognitive deficits in individuals with schizophrenia shows that the deficits may be present in early adolescence, or as early as childhood.[31] The deficits which an individual with schizophrenia presents tend to remain the same over time in most patients, or follow an identifiable course based upon environmental variables.[31][35]
Although the evidence that cognitive deficits remain stable over time is reliable and abundant,[34][35] much of the research in this domain focuses on methods to improve attention and working memory[35][36] Efforts to improve learning ability in individuals with schizophrenia using a high- versus low-reward condition and an instruction-absent or instruction-present condition revealed that increasing reward leads to poorer performance while providing instruction leads to improved performance, highlighting that some treatments may exist to increase cognitive performance.[35] Training individuals with schizophrenia to alter their thinking, attention, and language behaviors by verbalizing tasks, engaging in cognitive rehearsal, giving self-instructions, giving coping statements to the self to handle failure, and providing self-reinforcement for success, significantly improves performance on recall tasks.[35] This type of training, known as self-instructional (SI) training, produced benefits such as lower number of nonsense verbalizations and improved recall while distracted.[35]
Estimates of heritability vary because of the difficulty in separating the effects of genetics and the environment;[46] averages of 0.80 have been given.[47] The greatest risk for developing schizophrenia is having a first-degree relative with the disease (risk is 6.5%); more than 40% of monozygotic twins of those with schizophrenia are also affected.[8] If one parent is affected the risk is about 13% and if both are affected the risk is nearly 50%.[47]
Many genes are believed to be involved in schizophrenia, each of small effect and unknown transmission and expression.[8] Many possible candidates have been proposed, including specific copy number variations, NOTCH4, and histone protein loci.[48] A number of genome-wide associations such as zinc finger protein 804A have also been linked.[49] There appears to be overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.[50] Evidence is emerging that the genetic architecture of schizophrenia involved both common and rare risk variation.[51]
Assuming a hereditary basis, one question from evolutionary psychology is why genes that increase the likelihood of psychosis evolved, assuming the condition would have been maladaptive from an evolutionary point of view. One idea is that genes are involved in the evolution of language and human nature, but to date such ideas remain little more than hypothetical in nature.[52][53]
Estimates of heritability vary because of the difficulty in separating the effects of genetics and the environment;[46] averages of 0.80 have been given.[47] The greatest risk for developing schizophrenia is having a first-degree relative with the disease (risk is 6.5%); more than 40% of monozygotic twins of those with schizophrenia are also affected.[8] If one parent is affected the risk is about 13% and if both are affected the risk is nearly 50%.[47]
Many genes are believed to be involved in schizophrenia, each of small effect and unknown transmission and expression.[8] Many possible candidates have been proposed, including specific copy number variations, NOTCH4, and histone protein loci.[48] A number of genome-wide associations such as zinc finger protein 804A have also been linked.[49] There appears to be overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.[50] Evidence is emerging that the genetic architecture of schizophrenia involved both common and rare risk variation.[51]
Assuming a hereditary basis, one question from evolutionary psychology is why genes that increase the likelihood of psychosis evolved, assuming the condition would have been maladaptive from an evolutionary point of view. One idea is that genes are involved in the evolution of language and human nature, but to date such ideas remain little more than hypothetical in nature.[52][53]
Environmental factors associated with the development of schizophrenia include the living environment, drug use, and prenatal stressors.[11]
Parenting style seems to have no major effect, although people with supportive parents do better than those with critical or hostile parents.[8] Childhood trauma, death of a parent, and being bullied or abused increase the risk of psychosis.[54] Living in an urban environment during childhood or as an adult has consistently been found to increase the risk of schizophrenia by a factor of two,[8][11] even after taking into account drug use, ethnic group, and size of social group.[55] Other factors that play an important role include social isolation and immigration related to social adversity, racial discrimination, family dysfunction, unemployment, and poor housing conditions.[8][56]
It has been hypothesised that in some people, development of schizophrenia is related to intestinal tract dysfunction such as seen with non-celiac gluten sensitivity or abnormalities in the intestinal flora.[57]A subgroup of persons with schizophrenia present an immune response to gluten different from that found in people with celiac, with elevated levels of certain serum biomarkers of gluten sensitivity such as anti-gliadin IgG or anti-gliadin IgA antibodies.[58]
About half of those with schizophrenia use drugs or alcohol excessively.[59] Amphetamine, cocaine, and to a lesser extent alcohol, can result in a transient stimulant psychosis or alcohol-related psychosisthat presents very similarly to schizophrenia.[8][60] Although it is not generally believed to be a cause of the illness, people with schizophrenia use nicotine at much higher rates than the general population.[61]
Alcohol abuse can occasionally cause the development of a chronic, substance-induced psychotic disorder via a kindling mechanism.[62] Alcohol use is not associated with an earlier onset of psychosis.[63]
Cannabis can be a contributory factor in schizophrenia,[7][64][65] potentially causing the disease in those who are already at risk.[65] The increased risk may require the presence of certain genes within an individual[65] or may be related to preexisting psychopathology.[7] Early exposure is strongly associated with an increased risk.[7] The size of the increased risk is not clear,[66] but appears to be in the range of two to three times greater for psychosis.[64] Higher dosage and greater frequency of use are indicators of increased risk of chronic psychoses.[64]
Other drugs may be used only as coping mechanisms by individuals who have schizophrenia, to deal with depression, anxiety, boredom, and loneliness.[59][67]
Factors such as hypoxia and infection, or stress and malnutrition in the mother during fetal development, may result in a slight increase in the risk of schizophrenia later in life.[11] People diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring (at least in the northern hemisphere), which may be a result of increased rates of viral exposures in utero.[8] The increased risk is about five to eight percent.[68] Other infections during pregnancy or around the time of birth that may increase the risk include Toxoplasma gondi and Chlamydia.[69]
Many psychological mechanisms have been implicated in the development and maintenance of schizophrenia. Cognitive biases have been identified in those with the diagnosis or those at risk, especially when under stress or in confusing situations.[70] Some cognitive features may reflect global neurocognitive deficits such as memory loss, while others may be related to particular issues and experiences.[71][72]
Despite a demonstrated appearance of blunted affect, recent findings indicate that many individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are emotionally responsive, particularly to stressful or negative stimuli, and that such sensitivity may cause vulnerability to symptoms or to the disorder.[73][74] Some evidence suggests that the content of delusional beliefs and psychotic experiences can reflect emotional causes of the disorder, and that how a person interprets such experiences can influence symptomatology.[75][76][77] The use of “safety behaviors” (acts such as gestures or the use of words in specific contexts) to avoid or neutralize imagined threats may actually contribute to the chronicity of delusions.[78] Further evidence for the role of psychological mechanisms comes from the effects ofpsychotherapies on symptoms of schizophrenia.[79]
Schizophrenia is associated with subtle differences in brain structures, found in forty to fifty percent of cases, and in brain chemistry during acute psychotic states.[11] Studies using neuropsychological tests and brain imaging technologies such as fMRI and PET to examine functional differences in brain activity have shown that differences seem to occur most commonly in the frontal lobes, hippocampus and temporal lobes.[80] Reductions in brain volume, smaller than those found in Alzheimer’s disease, have been reported in areas of the frontal cortex and temporal lobes. It is uncertain whether these volumetric changes are progressive or exist prior to the onset of the disease.[44] These differences have been linked to the neurocognitive deficits often associated with schizophrenia.[81] Because neural circuits are altered, it has alternatively been suggested that schizophrenia should be thought of as a collection of neurodevelopmental disorders.[82] There has been debate on whether treatment with antipsychotics can itself cause reduction of brain volume.[83]Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) showing two levels of the brain; areas in orange were more active in healthy controls than in medicated people with schizophrenia.
Particular attention has been paid to the function of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain. This focus largely resulted from the accidental finding thatphenothiazine drugs, which block dopamine function, could reduce psychotic symptoms. It is also supported by the fact that amphetamines, which trigger the release of dopamine, may exacerbate the psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia.[84] The influential dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia proposed that excessive activation of D2 receptors was the cause of (the positive symptoms of) schizophrenia. Although postulated for about 20 years based on the D2 blockade effect common to all antipsychotics, it was not until the mid-1990s that PET and SPET imaging studies provided supporting evidence. The dopamine hypothesis is now thought to be simplistic, partly because newer antipsychotic medication (atypical antipsychotic medication) can be just as effective as older medication (typical antipsychotic medication), but also affects serotonin function and may have slightly less of a dopamine blocking effect.[85]
Schizophrenia is associated with enlarged lateral ventricles in the brain.
Interest has also focused on the neurotransmitter glutamate and the reduced function of the NMDA glutamate receptor in schizophrenia, largely because of the abnormally low levels of glutamate receptors found in the postmortem brains of those diagnosed with schizophrenia,[86] and the discovery that glutamate-blocking drugs such as phencyclidine and ketamine can mimic the symptoms and cognitive problems associated with the condition.[87] Reduced glutamate function is linked to poor performance on tests requiring frontal lobe and hippocampal function, and glutamate can affect dopamine function, both of which have been implicated in schizophrenia; this has suggested an important mediating (and possibly causal) role of glutamate pathways in the condition.[88] But positive symptoms fail to respond to glutamatergic medication.[89]
The ICD-10 criteria are typically used in European countries, while the DSM criteria are used in the United States and to varying degrees around the world, and are prevailing in research studies. The ICD-10 criteria put more emphasis on Schneiderian first-rank symptoms. In practice, agreement between the two systems is high.[94]
If signs of disturbance are present for more than a month but less than six months, the diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is applied. Psychotic symptoms lasting less than a month may be diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder, and various conditions may be classed as psychotic disorder not otherwise specified, while schizoaffective disorder is diagnosed if symptoms of mood disorder are substantially present alongside psychotic symptoms. If the psychotic symptoms are the direct physiological result of a general medical condition or a substance, then the diagnosis is one of a psychosis secondary to that condition.[90] Schizophrenia is not diagnosed if symptoms of pervasive developmental disorder are present unless prominent delusions or hallucinations are also present.[90]
With the publication of DSM-5, the APA removed all sub-classifications of schizophrenia.[95] The five sub-classifications included in DSM-IV-TR were:[96][97]
The ICD-10 defines two additional subtypes:[96]
Sluggish schizophrenia is in the Russian version of the ICD-10. “Sluggish schizophrenia” is in the category of “schizotypal” disorder in section F21 of chapter V.[98]
A more general medical and neurological examination may be needed to rule out medical illnesses which may rarely produce psychotic schizophrenia-like symptoms, such as metabolic disturbance,systemic infection, syphilis, HIV infection, epilepsy, limbic encephalitis, and brain lesions. Stroke, multiple sclerosis, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism and dementias such as Alzheimer’s disease,Huntington’s disease, frontotemporal dementia and Lewy Body dementia may also be associated with schizophrenia-like psychotic symptoms.[103] It may be necessary to rule out a delirium, which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness, and indicates an underlying medical illness. Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication or possible adverse effects from antipsychotic medication. In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies.[5]Schizophrenia is a severe brain disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally. Schizophrenia may result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and behavior.
Contrary to popular belief, schizophrenia isn’t a split personality or multiple personality. The word “schizophrenia” does mean “split mind,” but it refers to a disruption of the usual balance of emotions and thinking.
Schizophrenia is a chronic condition, requiring lifelong treatment.In men, schizophrenia symptoms typically start in the early to mid-20s. In women, symptoms typically begin in the late 20s. It’s uncommon for children to be diagnosed with schizophrenia and rare for those older than 45.
Schizophrenia involves a range of problems with thinking (cognitive), behavior or emotions. Signs and symptoms may vary, but they reflect an impaired ability to function. Symptoms may include:
Schizophrenia symptoms in teenagers are similar to those in adults, but the condition may be more difficult to recognize in this age group. This may be in part because some of the early symptoms of schizophrenia in teenagers are common for typical development during teen years, such as:
Compared with schizophrenia symptoms in adults, teens may be:
People with schizophrenia often lack awareness that their difficulties stem from a mental illness that requires medical attention. So it often falls to family or friends to get them help.
If you think someone you know may have symptoms of schizophrenia, talk to him or her about your concerns. Although you can’t force someone to seek professional help, you can offer encouragement and support and help your loved one find a qualified doctor or mental health provider.
If your loved one poses a danger to self or others or can’t provide his or her own food, clothing or shelter, you may need to call 911 or other emergency responders for help so that your loved one might be evaluated by a mental health provider. In some cases, emergency hospitalization may be needed. Laws on involuntary commitment for mental health treatment vary by state. You can contact community mental health agencies or police departments in your area for details.
Suicidal thoughts and behavior are common among people with schizophrenia. If you have a loved one who is in danger of committing suicide or has made a suicide attempt, make sure someone stays with that person. Call 911 or your local emergency number immediately. Or, if you think you can do so safely, take the person to the nearest hospital emergency room.
Prevention of schizophrenia is difficult as there are no reliable markers for the later development of the disorder.[104] There is tentative evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent schizophrenia.[105] While there is some evidence that early intervention in those with a psychotic episode may improve short-term outcomes, there is little benefit from these measures after five years.[11]Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the prodrome phase is of uncertain benefit and therefore as of 2009 is not recommended.[106] Cognitive behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of psychosis in those at high risk after a year[107] and is recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) in this group.[108] Another preventative measure is to avoid drugs that have been associated with development of the disorder, including cannabis, cocaine, and amphetamines.[8]
The first-line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication,[111] which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days. Antipsychotics, however, fail to significantly improve the negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction.[30][112] In those on antipsychotics, continued use decreases the risk of relapse.[113][114] There is little evidence regarding effects from their use beyond two or three years.[114]
The choice of which antipsychotic to use is based on benefits, risks, and costs.[11] It is debatable whether, as a class, typical or atypical antipsychotics are better.[9][115]Amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects.[116] Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages.[117] There is a good response in 40–50%, a partial response in 30–40%, and treatment resistance (failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two or three different antipsychotics) in 20% of people.[30] Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs (“treatment-resistant” or “refractory” schizophrenia),[118] but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people.[8][11][119]
Most people on antipsychotics have side effects. People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain, diabetes and risk of metabolic syndrome; this is most pronounced with olanzapine, while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain.[116] Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol.[116] It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome or tardive dyskinesia, a rare but serious neurological disorder.[120]
For people who are unwilling or unable to take medication regularly, long-acting depot preparations of antipsychotics may be used to achieve control.[121] They reduce the risk of relapse to a greater degree than oral medications.[113] When used in combination with psychosocial interventions they may improve long-term adherence to treatment.[121] The American Psychiatric Association suggests considering stopping antipsychotics in some people if there are no symptoms for more than a year.[114]
A number of psychosocial interventions may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia including: family therapy,[122] assertive community treatment, supported employment, cognitive remediation,[123]skills training, token economic interventions, and psychosocial interventions for substance use and weight management.[124] Family therapy or education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual, may reduce relapses and hospitalizations.[122] Evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in either reducing symptoms or preventing relapse is minimal.[125][126] Art or drama therapy have not been well-researched.[127][128] Music therapy has been shown to improve mental state and social functioning when paired with regular care.[129